Quantum mechanics once baffled scientists. Now it's changing the world

 For much of the early 20th century, quantum mechanics was one of the most puzzling ideas in science. The theory challenged conventional thinking and left even leading physicists struggling to make sense of its implications. A century later, it has become the foundation of technologies that influence daily life, including lasers, microchips, secure communications, and emerging quantum computers.

In a new perspective article published in Science, Dr. Marlan Scully of Texas A&M University reflects on the remarkable evolution of quantum mechanics, from an abstract theory about tiny particles to a powerful framework helping researchers tackle some of the most difficult questions in science.

"Quantum mechanics started as a way to explain the behavior of tiny particles," said Scully, who is also affiliated with Princeton University. "Now it's driving innovations that were unimaginable just a generation ago."

Scully has played a major role in advancing the field. He co-authored the influential textbook Quantum Optics, a resource that has educated generations of physicists. His research in coherent nanoscale laser spectroscopy helped make it possible to study molecules with atomic-scale precision. He has also developed groundbreaking concepts involving quantum heat engines, which challenge traditional assumptions about thermodynamic efficiency and may one day lead to new energy technologies.

From Schrödinger's Cat to Quantum Technology

One of the most famous illustrations of quantum mechanics came in 1935, when Erwin Schrödinger proposed his cat paradox. The thought experiment suggested that a cat could exist in a state that is both alive and dead until it is observed. Schrödinger introduced the idea to highlight how strange quantum theory appeared.

Today, those once-bizarre concepts have moved far beyond philosophical debates.

"That 'quantum weirdness' is no longer just a philosophical puzzle," said Scully. "It's the foundation of quantum computing, quantum cryptography and even gravitational wave detection."

The foundations of quantum mechanics were built by pioneers including Schrödinger and Werner Heisenberg. They developed two different mathematical approaches, wave mechanics and matrix mechanics, to describe quantum systems. Over time, these approaches were unified and contributed to the development of quantum field theory, which explains how particles interact through electromagnetic and nuclear forces.

Their work expanded on Niels Bohr's early atomic model, which pictured electrons orbiting the nucleus much like planets orbit the sun. While later discoveries refined that picture, Bohr's model helped pave the way for modern quantum theory.

Quantum Coherence and the Rise of Lasers

Among the most important concepts in quantum mechanics is quantum coherence. This phenomenon allows particles such as atoms and photons to remain linked in a coordinated state, even across significant distances.

Quantum coherence led directly to the development of the laser, a technology that many once believed could never work. Today, lasers are used throughout modern society, from supermarket barcode scanners to vision correction procedures and advanced scientific instruments.

Coherence is also closely tied to quantum entanglement, the phenomenon that prompted Albert Einstein to describe it as "spooky action at a distance."

Entanglement enables particles to share information through uniquely quantum properties. These effects form the basis of quantum encryption systems and improve the sensitivity of sophisticated instruments such as the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO), which detects tiny ripples in spacetime.

Quantum Heat Engines Challenge Classical Limits

One of the more surprising applications of quantum physics involves quantum heat engines.

Traditional engines are constrained by the Carnot Limit, which defines the maximum efficiency allowed by classical thermodynamics. Researchers have found that by exploiting quantum coherence, it may be possible to create engines that exceed those classical limits.

"It's a striking example of how quantum principles can rewrite the rules of classical physics," Scully said.

Quantum Biology, Gravity, and Turbulence

The influence of quantum mechanics now extends far beyond physics.

In biology, techniques such as coherent Raman spectroscopy allow researchers to examine viruses and other structures at the nanoscale, providing valuable insights into the microscopic world.

Quantum ideas are also shaping efforts to understand the universe itself. Scientists working on concepts such as string theory and quantum gravity are attempting to reconcile quantum mechanics with Einstein's theory of relativity, one of the biggest unsolved problems in modern physics.

Researchers are even applying quantum concepts to the long-standing challenge of understanding turbulence. The chaotic motion of air and fluids affects weather patterns, climate systems, and aircraft performance. By studying superfluid helium, a substance that displays unusual quantum behavior, scientists are uncovering patterns that could improve climate modeling, storm prediction, and aviation safety.

The Next Century of Quantum Discovery

Despite a century of success, quantum mechanics continues to raise profound questions.

Can gravity be quantized (i.e., does gravity behave like other forces at the quantum level)? Could quantum computers transform medicine and materials science? What new insights about the universe might emerge from future quantum technologies?

Scully believes the search for answers is only beginning.

"At the start of the 20th century, many thought physics was complete," he said. "Now, in the 21st century, we know the adventure is just beginning."

Five Ways Quantum Mechanics Affects Everyday Life

1. Lasers From grocery store scanners to eye surgery, lasers depend on quantum principles that amplify light.
2. Secure communication Quantum cryptography can create highly secure codes that help protect sensitive information.
3. Faster computing Quantum computers have the potential to solve certain problems in seconds that could take classical computers thousands of years.
4. Better measurements Gravitational wave observatories use quantum techniques such as "squeezed light" to detect tiny distortions in spacetime and reveal new details about the universe.
5. Medical breakthroughs Quantum imaging methods help scientists study viruses, molecules, and other biological structures at the atomic scale.

Source: ScienceDaily

Ancient bees turned tooth sockets into tiny nurseries 20,000 years ago

 Around 20,000 years ago, a cave was home to generations of owls that regularly coughed up pellets containing the bones of their prey. Those discarded bones later became an unexpected resource for another group of animals. According to a new study published in Royal Society Open Science, ancient bees used the empty tooth sockets in the fossilized jaws as tiny nests for their offspring.

The discovery marks the first known evidence that bees used animal bones as places to lay their eggs, revealing an unusual nesting strategy that had never been documented before.

Fossil Rich Cave Preserved an Ancient Ecosystem

The Caribbean island of Hispaniola, shared by Haiti and the Dominican Republic, contains thousands of limestone caves.

"In some areas, you'll find a different sinkhole every 100 meters," says Lazaro Viñola López, a postdoctoral researcher at the Field Museum in Chicago and the study's lead author.

The cave examined in this study had previously been identified by Juan Almonte Milan, curator of paleobiology at the Dominican Republic's Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, as an exceptionally rich fossil deposit. Viñola López and colleagues explored the site while he was completing his PhD research at the University of Florida and the Florida Museum of Natural History.

"The initial descent into the cave isn't too deep -- we would tie a rope to the side and then rappel down," says Viñola López. "If you go in at night, you see the eyes of the tarantulas that live inside. But once you walk down a ten-meter-long tunnel underground, you start finding the fossils."

The cave preserved multiple fossil layers separated by carbonate deposits that formed during ancient rainy periods. Most of the remains belonged to rodents, but researchers also recovered fossils from sloths, birds, reptiles, and many other animals, representing more than 50 species.

Together, the fossils revealed how the cave was used over a long period of time.

"We think that this was a cave where owls lived for many generations, maybe for hundreds or thousands of years," says Viñola López. "The owls would go out and hunt, and then come back to the cave and throw up pellets. We find fossils of the animals that they ate, fossils from the owls themselves, and even some turtles and crocodiles who might have fallen into the cave."

An Unusual Discovery Inside Tooth Sockets

Viñola López was mainly studying the mammal bones left behind by the owls when he noticed something unusual while cleaning the fossils.

Several jawbones contained smooth deposits inside their empty tooth sockets that looked different from naturally accumulated sediment.

"It was a smooth surface, and almost concave. That's not how sediment normally fills in, and I kept seeing it in multiple specimens. I was like, 'Okay, there's something weird here,'" he says. "It reminded me of the wasp nest."

The observation immediately reminded him of an earlier experience during an undergraduate fossil excavation in Montana. There, another paleontologist had shown him fossilized wasp cocoons, which are small mud chambers where developing larvae mature into adults. The structures closely resembled what he was seeing inside the fossil jaws.

Ancient Bee Nests Hidden in Bones

Although honey bees and paper wasps are well known for building large communal nests, most bee species actually live alone.

"But actually, most bees are solitary. They lay their eggs in small cavities, and they leave pollen for the larvae to eat," says Viñola López. "Some bee species burrow holes in wood or in the ground, or use empty structures for nests. Some species in Europe and Africa even build their nests in empty snail shells,"

To investigate further, the research team CT scanned the fossil bones. The scans produced detailed three dimensional images of the compacted material inside the tooth sockets without damaging either the fossils or the sediment.

The scans showed that the structures matched the mud nests built by some modern solitary bees. Some nests even preserved grains of ancient pollen that mother bees had stored as food for their developing offspring.

The researchers believe the bees mixed dirt with saliva to construct each tiny nest, which measured less than the size of a pencil eraser. Nesting inside the hollow bones of larger animals may also have helped shield their eggs from predators such as wasps.

A New Type of Fossil Nest

The nests contained no fossilized bees, which the researchers say is not surprising because the cave's warm, humid conditions are poor for preserving delicate insect bodies.

Without preserved bees, the scientists could not determine exactly which species built the nests. However, the nest structures themselves were distinct enough to receive their own taxonomic classification.

The fossil nests were named Osnidum almontei in honor of Juan Almonte Milan, who first identified the cave and has spent decades studying the region as one of Hispaniola's leading paleontologists.

"Since we didn't find any of the bees' bodies, it's possible that they belonged to a species that's still alive today -- there's very little known about the ecology of many of the bees on these islands," says Viñola López. "But we know that a lot of the animals whose bones are preserved in the cave are now extinct, so the bees that created these nests might be from a species that has died out."

The First Known Example of Bees Nesting in Bones

According to the researchers, this is the first documented case of bees using animal bones as nesting sites.

Viñola López believes several environmental factors likely made this behavior possible. The limestone landscape in the region has very little soil, making traditional underground nesting sites scarce. At the same time, generations of owls continually deposited bones throughout the cave, providing countless hollow tooth sockets that solitary bees could use.

"This discovery shows how weird bees can be -- they can surprise you. But it also shows that when you're looking at fossils, you have to be very careful," says Viñola López.

He notes that without his previous experience recognizing fossilized wasp nests, he might have simply cleaned away the unusual sediment during fossil preparation.

"Even if you're looking primarily for fossils of larger, vertebrate animals, you should keep an eye out for trace fossils that can tell you about invertebrates like insects. Knowing about insects can tell you a lot about a whole ecosystem, so you have to pay attention to that part of the story."

Source: ScienceDaily

Scientists may have finally found how Alzheimer's kills brain cells

 Scientists have identified evidence of a previously unknown process that may explain how brain cells die in Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). The discovery, centered on a mechanism known as karyoptosis, could point researchers toward new ways to slow the progression of these devastating conditions.

Many neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Alzheimer's disease, and FTD, are marked by the buildup of harmful proteins inside neurons. Over time, these nerve cells die, contributing to memory loss and other symptoms. Although scientists have long known about several forms of cell death, including apoptosis, those mechanisms have never fully explained the extensive neuron loss seen in these disorders.

Now, researchers from King's College London, working with the UK Dementia Research Institute and supported in part by Alzheimer's Research UK, have identified karyoptosis as a potential missing link connecting toxic protein accumulation to the death of brain cells.

Karyoptosis refers to a series of chemical reactions set in motion when toxic proteins accumulate inside a cell. As the process unfolds, the cell's nucleus, which contains its genetic material, gradually shrivels before ultimately breaking apart.

Evidence Found in Alzheimer's and FTD Brains

The findings, published in Nature Communications, are based on an analysis of 3,000 brain cells collected from 28 people with either FTD or end stage Alzheimer's disease. Using computational algorithms, the researchers identified different forms of cell death occurring within the tissue.

They found signs of karyoptosis in 35 percent of cells from the frontal cortex of people with Alzheimer's disease, compared with just 15 percent of cells from healthy older adults.

"This study is the culmination of a 10-year journey at King's, from when we first identified karyoptosis in a relatively rare disease to discovering that it is a common feature of dementias which affect millions of people."

A Possible New Target for Dementia Treatments

The researchers also uncovered a key molecular pathway that appears to control karyoptosis. They found that forcing proteins inside neurons to clump together, a hallmark of many neurodegenerative diseases, can trigger this destructive process.

According to the study, the buildup of toxic proteins destabilizes the outer membrane of the nucleus, causing it to shrink and eventually disintegrate.

The team then investigated proteins known as kinases, which act as molecular switches in this pathway. In laboratory experiments using rat neurons, blocking these switches reduced markers associated with karyoptosis. In particular, the interaction between the kinase p38 MAP kinase and the protein LaminB1 emerged as a promising target for slowing or preventing the breakdown of the nucleus.

The researchers believe this pathway could eventually lead to therapies that reduce brain cell loss in dementia. Their next goal is to develop ways to selectively target the interaction between p38 MAP kinase and LaminB1 in humans.

"By specifically targeting the interaction between p38 MAP kinase and LaminB1 we may slow down the process of cell death, buying time for more pinpointed therapies against specific neurodegenerative diseases," said Dr. Manolis Fanto, Reader in Functional Genomics, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London.

Building a Road Map for Future Therapies

"The death and loss of cells in the brain drives many symptoms experienced by people living with dementia. Our study uncovers a new series of chemical events which can coordinate cell death in brain cells. We have started to lay out the road map of how karyoptosis works, and I'm excited to see future breakthroughs this may drive in the dementia research community and beyond," said Dr. Rebecca Casterton, Senior Researcher at the UK Dementia Research Institute at King's and first author on the paper.

"For decades, we've known that toxic proteins build up in Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal dementia, but exactly how they lead to the loss of brain cells has remained unclear.

"The identification of karyoptosis is a crucial step towards finding targets for treatments that could stop or slow cell loss. It could help widen the window for therapies that tackle the underlying causes of disease, bringing us closer to a cure for dementia. This is why Alzheimer's Research UK funds and supports research," said Dr. Sara Rodrigues, Senior Research Manager at Alzheimer's Research UK.

The study, "Karyoptosis mediates cell death and neurodegeneration upon proteotoxic stress," was published in Nature Communications.

The research was primarily funded by Alzheimer's Research UK and the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council International Partnership. Additional support came from a studentship provided by the UK Medical Research Council and the UK Dementia Research Institute.

Source: ScienceDaily

Scientists find the “Achilles’ heel” of deadly gut bacteria

 Enterotoxigenic E. coli and Shigella are responsible for hundreds of millions of infections worldwide each year and remain among the leading causes of fatal diarrheal disease, particularly in children. Despite decades of research, scientists have not yet developed effective vaccines against either pathogen. One major challenge is that the bacterial features typically targeted by vaccines vary widely between strains.

Now, researchers at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis have identified a biological vulnerability shared by these dangerous gut bacteria, raising the possibility of a single vaccine that could protect against both.

A team from WashU Medicine, working with collaborators at the University of Missouri and the International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research in Bangladesh, found that enterotoxigenic E. coli (the leading cause of travelers' diarrhea), Shigella, and several other disease-causing bacteria depend on three closely related enzymes to penetrate the gut's protective mucus layer and establish infection.

Using samples from infected patients and volunteers who had been exposed to the bacteria, the researchers showed that antibodies directed against a common region of these enzymes can neutralize all three. By blocking the enzymes, the antibodies prevent the bacteria from crossing the intestinal mucus barrier.

The findings, published June 15 in PNAS, suggest that a future combination vaccine could potentially protect against multiple major causes of severe diarrhea.

"For something so common and so deadly to young children, it's striking that we still don't have a vaccine for either of these pathogens," said James M. Fleckenstein, MD, a professor of medicine in the Division of Infectious Diseases at WashU Medicine and co-senior author on the study. "What's exciting here is that we've found a kind of Achilles' heel or weak point they share that we might be able to target to protect against both."

How Gut Pathogens Break Through the Body's Defenses

Before they can cause disease, gut pathogens must first get through a thick mucus layer that lines the intestines. This protective coating acts as a barrier, keeping harmful microbes away from intestinal tissues and even helping keep the body's beneficial bacteria in check.

According to Fleckenstein, this early stage of infection may offer an opportunity to stop disease before it starts, without harming helpful microorganisms.

Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC), which causes gastrointestinal illness unlike the harmless strains of E. coli commonly found in the gut, and Shigella use closely related enzymes to cut through the proteins that give mucus its structure. Once they break through this barrier, the bacteria can release toxins that trigger diarrhea.

Fleckenstein's laboratory previously identified one of these enzymes in disease-causing E. coli. The enzyme, known as EatA, breaks down a key structural component of intestinal mucus. The new study revealed that two similar enzymes, SepA and Pic, produced by Shigella and other diarrhea-causing bacteria, perform the same function.

Antibodies That Block Multiple Pathogens

Working with coauthor Ali Ellebedy, PhD, the Leo Loeb Professor in the WashU Medicine Department of Pathology & Immunology, Fleckenstein and colleagues isolated antibodies from people in Bangladesh who had naturally contracted ETEC infections as well as from volunteers intentionally exposed to the bacteria in controlled studies.

The team discovered that antibodies capable of blocking EatA could also neutralize SepA and Pic. Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system that recognize specific targets and attach to them, helping the body eliminate threats.

To better understand how this protection works, structural biologists at the University of Missouri, including first author David P. Buckley, PhD, a postdoctoral research associate, used cryo-electron microscopy, a method that rapidly freezes molecules so they can be imaged in extraordinary detail.

Their analysis revealed exactly where the most effective antibodies bind. The antibodies targeted a region shared by all three enzymes, explaining how a single antibody can disable the mucus-degrading machinery used by multiple pathogens. The discovery also provides vaccine developers with a specific target that could be used to stimulate protective antibody responses before infection occurs.

"This study establishes EatA as a viable vaccine candidate capable of providing protection across multiple pathogens," said Zachary Berndsen, PhD, an assistant professor of biochemistry at the University of Missouri and co-senior author on the study. "By identifying the key regions of EatA that are targeted by neutralizing antibodies capable of inhibiting its enzymatic function, we've established a foundation for rational vaccine design -- a major advance toward development of effective therapeutics that have the potential to save many lives."

Source: ScienceDaily

Only one workout helped older adults lose fat without losing muscle

 A recent study led by researchers at the University of the Sunshine Coast (UniSC) suggests that high intensity interval training (HIIT) could be one of the most effective ways for older adults to reduce body fat while maintaining muscle mass.

The research compared different exercise intensities in healthy older adults and found that all levels of exercise produced some fat loss. However, only HIIT helped participants preserve lean muscle.

"We found that high, medium and low intensity exercises all led to modest fat loss but only HIIT retained lean muscle," said lead author and exercise physiologist Dr. Grace Rose of the University of the Sunshine Coast.

Exercise Intensity and Body Composition

The study explored how exercise intensity affects body composition, an important factor in overall health as people age.

According to Dr. Rose, moderate intensity exercise also helped reduce body fat, but it came with a downside.

"While moderate training reduced fat mass, it also caused a small decline in lean muscle," she said.

"Both high and moderate intensities improved the composition of weight carried around the middle. Further analysis is needed of the low intensity results."

Dr. Rose noted that the findings are particularly important because changes in body composition are linked to the development and progression of many chronic diseases later in life.

Six Months of Supervised Exercise

The study included more than 120 healthy older adults from the Greater Brisbane region. Participants completed three gym based exercise sessions each week over a six month period.

On average, participants were 72 years old and had an average body mass index of 26kg/m2, which is considered normal for adults over age 65.

The findings were published in the journal Maturitas. The project involved researchers from UniSC's Healthy Ageing Research Cluster as well as The University of Queensland.

Why HIIT May Protect Muscle

UniSC Associate Professor of Physiology and study co-author Mia Schaumberg said the research arrives at a useful time, as many people focus on health and fitness goals at the start of a new year.

"With the festive season now behind most of us and New Year's resolutions in full swing, this research can help inform people's plans for healthy aging in 2026," she said.

In the study, HIIT consisted of repeated short intervals of very demanding exercise followed by easier recovery periods.

"High intensity training in this study involved repeated short bursts, or intervals, of very hard exercise -- where breathing is heavy and conversation is difficult -- alternated with easier recovery periods.

"HIIT likely works better because it puts more stress on the muscles, giving the body a stronger signal to keep muscle tissue rather than lose it."

Source: Sciencedaily

Brain activity under anesthesia challenges what we know about consciousness

 Researchers at Baylor College of Medicine have discovered that the human brain can continue performing surprisingly advanced language tasks even when a person is fully unconscious under general anesthesia. The findings, published in Nature, challenge long held assumptions about the relationship between consciousness and cognition. They also offer new insights that could shape future research on memory, language, and brain-computer interfaces.

"Our findings show that the brain is far more active and capable during unconsciousness than previously thought," said Dr. Sameer Sheth, professor and Cullen Foundation Endowed chair of neurosurgery and a McNair Scholar at Baylor. "Even when patients are fully anesthetized, their brains continue to analyze the world around them."

Recording Brain Activity During Anesthesia

To investigate what the unconscious brain is capable of, Sheth and his colleagues recorded the activity of hundreds of individual neurons in the hippocampus, a brain region involved in memory. The recordings were made while patients undergoing epilepsy surgery were under general anesthesia. These procedures gave researchers a rare opportunity to study this part of the brain directly.

The team used Neuropixels probes, an advanced technology that had never before been used in the hippocampus for this type of research. This allowed them to observe how the brain responded to sounds and language even when patients had no conscious awareness.

The Brain Continued Processing Language

The first experiment exposed patients to a series of repeating tones with occasional unexpected sounds mixed in. The researchers found that neurons in the hippocampus consistently detected these unusual tones. Even more interesting, the brain became better at recognizing them over time, suggesting that learning or neural plasticity was still taking place during anesthesia.

The researchers then increased the complexity of the experiment by playing short stories while continuing to record brain activity. The hippocampus showed clear evidence of processing language in real time. Patterns of neural activity revealed that the brain could distinguish different parts of speech, including nouns, verbs, and adjectives.

The team also made another surprising discovery. Neural signals could be used to predict upcoming words before they were spoken.

"The brain appears to anticipate what comes next in a story, even without conscious awareness," said Sheth, who is also Director of The Gordon and Mary Cain Pediatric Neurology Research Foundation Laboratories within the Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital.

"This kind of predictive coding is something we associate with being awake and attentive, yet it's happening here in an unconscious state," said Dr. Benjamin Hayden, professor of neurosurgery at Baylor.

Rethinking Consciousness

The findings suggest that important cognitive abilities, including language comprehension and prediction, may not depend on conscious awareness. Instead, consciousness itself may arise from communication across multiple brain regions rather than from activity within a single area such as the hippocampus.

The researchers also noted similarities between the brain's predictive behavior and artificial intelligence (AI). Just as large language models generate text by anticipating the next word, the hippocampus appeared to make similar predictions during language processing. Understanding these shared principles could help scientists better understand both biological and artificial intelligence.

The work may also contribute to future coammunication technologies, including speech prosthetics designed for people who have lost the ability to speak.

"Can we use these signals to deploy and run a speech prosthetic for some of the parts of the brain that are damaged by stroke or injury? These are questions that we can now consider in relation to this part of the brain," said Dr. Vigi Katlowitz, first author and a neurosurgery resident with Baylor.

More Research Is Needed

The researchers caution that the findings should be interpreted carefully. The study examined only one type of general anesthesia, so the results may not apply to other unconscious states such as sleep or coma. In addition, the research focused on a single brain region, and it remains unclear how broadly these processes occur throughout the brain.

"This work pushes us to rethink what it means to be conscious," said Sheth. "The brain is doing much more behind the scenes than we fully understand."

Source: ScienceDaily

These tiny soil microbes could rescue crops from salty farmland

 Researchers have uncovered an unexpected natural ally that could help farmers tackle one of agriculture's fastest growing challenges: salty soil.

A team including scientists from the University of East Anglia (UEA), led by Chinese researcher Dr. Yanfen Zheng, found that naturally occurring soil bacteria can significantly improve plants' ability to survive in saline conditions.

The study also uncovered a previously unknown way these microbes protect crops such as maize, tomato, and rapeseed from salt stress. The discovery could eventually help farmers grow food on land that has become too salty for conventional agriculture.

Soil salinity threatens global agriculture

Salt buildup in farmland is becoming an increasingly serious problem because of climate change, irrigation practices, and rising sea levels. As salt accumulates in soil, it stunts plant growth, damages roots, and can sharply reduce crop yields.

Prof Jonathan Todd, from UEA's School of Biological Sciences and the Quadram Institute on the Norwich Research Park, said: "The build-up of salt in farmland is a major and worsening problem -- driven by climate change, irrigation and rising sea levels.

"Salt chokes plant growth, damages roots and severely impact entire harvests -- putting global food supplies at risk.

"We know that plants rely on communities of microbes around their roots, called the root microbiome, to help them cope with environmental stress. But exactly how these relationships work, and whether they are consistent across crops and soils, has remained largely unclear.

"We found that plants appear to recruit beneficial bacteria in salty soil conditions, which in turn trigger internal changes that strengthen their physical structure and resilience.

"If scientists can harness this natural process, it could mark the beginning of a new era in climate-resilient agriculture."

Root microbes drawn to salt stressed plants

To better understand these plant and microbe partnerships, the researchers examined root microbiomes from multiple crop species grown in different soil types.

They discovered that a group of naturally occurring bacteria known as pseudomonads consistently gathered around plant roots exposed to salt stress. The same pattern appeared across several crops, including maize, tomato, and rapeseed, suggesting this is a widespread biological response rather than something unique to a single plant.

Source: ScienceDaily

These fat-filled brain cells may be making multiple sclerosis worse

 Researchers led by Daan van der Vliet, working with teams from the Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Leiden University, and Utrecht University, have identified a biological process that may help explain why multiple sclerosis (MS) becomes especially severe in some patients. Examining brain tissue from people with rapidly progressing MS, they found large numbers of unusual immune cells packed with fat droplets. The findings could point to new treatment strategies and future biomarkers that help predict how quickly the disease will worsen.

MS damages myelin, the fatty protective coating that surrounds nerve fibers in the brain and spinal cord. As this insulation breaks down, patients can develop neurological problems such as difficulty walking or vision impairment.

The disease does not follow the same path in everyone. Some individuals experience relatively mild symptoms for many years, while others develop serious disability and paralysis at a young age. Understanding why these outcomes differ has been a longstanding goal for researchers.

To investigate, the team focused on microglia, specialized immune cells in the brain that remove debris and support tissue repair. In patients with MS, however, these cells can undergo dramatic changes. They become filled with fat droplets, giving them a distinctive foamy appearance. Scientists refer to them as "foamy microglia."

"We found that patients with large numbers of these foamy microglia had a more severe disease course more frequently," says researcher Daan van der Vliet.

When Brain Cleanup Cells Become Overloaded

Normally, microglia help maintain brain health by clearing away damaged material. In MS, researchers believe that these cells may take in so much damaged myelin that they eventually exceed their capacity to process it.

"These cells are probably trying to do something good: clearing up damage," Van der Vliet explains. "But they become overloaded, so to speak. As a result, they can no longer effectively contribute to repair."

The study also revealed important molecular differences between MS lesions containing foamy microglia and those without them. Areas containing these cells were enriched with specific fats linked to long lasting inflammatory activity.

A More Complex View of Multiple Sclerosis

Inflammation has long been considered a major force driving MS progression. However, the new findings suggest the disease may involve a more complicated chain of events.

"It does not appear to be simply about the inflammatory response alone," says Van der Vliet. "These cells are probably attempting to clear damage and promote repair, but that process fails, worsens inflammation, and counteracts recovery."

According to the researchers, the results highlight how a mechanism that initially aims to protect the brain may eventually contribute to ongoing damage when it stops functioning properly.

Source: ScienceDaily

This simple twist could bring quantum computers closer to reality

 Researchers at the University of Technology Sydney have demonstrated a new way to control tiny sources of quantum light by twisting atomically thin layers of hexagonal boron nitride.

The advance provides scientists with a new method for tuning quantum emitters, which are microscopic light sources that could play an important role in future technologies such as quantum computing, secure communications, and ultra-sensitive sensors.

Lead author Dr. Angus Gale said the work offers researchers a valuable new tool for making these quantum systems more practical.

"You can measure these quantum emitters and see that they exist, but it's hard to make them work in practice. This gives us a lever to get closer to that -- a step towards the realization of quantum technologies," said Dr. Gale.

Twisting Layers Changes Quantum Light

During the experiments, Gale and his team found that twisting the material could significantly alter both the color and wavelength of the light emitted by the quantum emitters. The magnitude of the change was especially noteworthy.

Most studies create a device at a specific twist angle and leave it unchanged. In contrast, the researchers were able to repeatedly lift, rotate, and restack the material, allowing them to continuously modify its properties.

"We're leveraging the fact that this material, hexagonal boron nitride (hBN), is layered. We can pick it up, stack it, twist it, and use that twist to modify the emitters. You can't really do that with traditional materials like diamond or silicon carbide."

"The benefit is that we used this twistable platform to shift the emission by a very significant amount," said Gale. "Often when you control these systems, the amount of manipulation is very limited, but in this case the shift was much larger than expected.

"Rather than trying to make hBN defects behave like a traditional solid-state hosts, we took advantage of hBN's own strength: its thin, layered, twistable structure."

Why Hexagonal Boron Nitride Is Different

Gale compared the material's structure to slices of cheese rather than a solid block.

"With a block of cheese, you can't really get to the flavor in the middle. But with slices, you can peel away layers, put them back together and change how they interact," he said.

Because hBN is made of extremely thin layers, researchers can separate and reassemble those layers in ways that are not possible with more conventional quantum materials.

New Possibilities for Quantum Technologies

Supervising author Professor Igor Aharonovich said the ability to twist layered materials is particularly exciting because it can reveal entirely new physical behavior.

"You can take two layers that don't do much on their own, put them together at a specific angle, and suddenly you have a completely different system," said Professor Aharonovich.

According to Aharonovich, the findings could help advance several emerging quantum technologies.

"These materials could eventually be used for quantum computing communications and quantum sensing, which would help for applications such as healthcare, cybersecurity and improved GPS; and gives us more control over the building blocks needed to get there."

Source: ScienceDaily

Major review finds vaping likely causes lung and oral cancer

 A comprehensive new review led by UNSW Sydney has concluded that nicotine-based e-cigarettes are likely to cause cancers of the lungs and oral cavity.

Published in the journal Carcinogenesis, the study evaluated a broad range of international research and brought together experts from several institutions, including The University of Queensland, Flinders University, The University of Sydney, Royal North Shore Hospital, The Prince Charles Hospital, and Sunshine Coast University Hospital.

The research team included specialists from multiple fields such as pharmacy, epidemiology, thoracic surgery, and public health. By examining evidence from a variety of scientific disciplines, they sought to determine whether vaping itself may contribute to cancer development.

"To our knowledge, this review is the most definitive determination that those who vape are at increased risk of cancer compared to those who don't," Prof. Stewart says.

The review focused on carcinogenicity, or cancer causation, and argues that while vaping has often been studied as a pathway to cigarette smoking, far less attention has been paid to the possibility that e-cigarettes could directly cause cancer on their own.

Researchers describe the work as one of the most extensive evaluations yet of whether vaping can increase cancer risk independently of traditional tobacco smoking. The analysis combined findings from clinical research, animal studies, and laboratory investigations involving chemicals generated by e-cigarettes.

"Considering all the findings -- from clinical monitoring, animal studies and mechanistic data -- e-cigarettes are likely to cause lung cancer and oral cancer," Prof. Stewart says.

Although the results were highly consistent across different areas of research, Prof. Stewart notes that the exact number of cancer cases attributable to vaping remains unknown.

"Our assessment is qualitative and does not involve a numerical estimate of cancer risk or burden. We'll only be able to determine the precise risk once longer-term studies are available."

Growing Concerns About Vaping and Public Health

E-cigarettes first entered the market in the early 2000s and became available in Australia around 2008. They were initially promoted as a potentially safer alternative to conventional cigarettes and as a tool to help people quit smoking.

Since then, brightly colored and flavored vaping products have become increasingly popular, especially among younger users. Despite tighter regulations introduced by the Australian Government in 2023, vaping remains common outside schools, bars, and train stations throughout the country. Current rules prohibit disposable and non-therapeutic vapes, while therapeutic vaping products can only be sold through pharmacies and only for smoking cessation purposes.

"E-cigarettes are known to be a gateway to smoking and hence cancer," says co-author UNSW Associate Professor Freddy Sitas.

"But the extent to which they may cause cancer in their own right has not received as much attention in research," he says.

"The evidence was remarkably consistent across fields," he says. "It dictated an unequivocal finding now, though human studies that estimate the risk will take decades to accumulate."

Evidence Points in the Same Direction

Scientists have spent more than a century studying the health effects of smoking. Although e-cigarettes are much newer, exposure to nicotine containing aerosols has already been associated with addiction, poisoning, inhalation injuries, and burns.

Because long-term population studies are still underway, researchers must currently rely on other forms of evidence to assess potential cancer risks from vaping.

The review identified multiple cancer-causing substances in e-cigarette aerosols, including volatile organic compounds and metals released by heating coils.

Researchers also examined several other lines of evidence. These included biomarkers in people that indicate DNA damage, oxidative stress, and inflammation in tissues; mouse studies that resulted in lung tumors; and laboratory experiments showing cellular injury and disruptions to biological processes linked to cancer development.

According to the authors, the collective findings consistently point toward the same conclusion.

Dual Use May Increase Lung Cancer Risk

The researchers also highlight growing evidence that many smokers who switch to vaping continue using conventional cigarettes as well.

"Most of those who use e-cigarettes to quit smoking end up in 'dual-use-limbo', unable to shake off either habit," says A/Prof. Sitas.

"What we do know from recent epidemiological evidence from the USA is that those who both vape and smoke are at an additional four-fold increased risk of developing lung cancer."

Source: ScienceDaily

Scientists discover neurons must break their DNA to build the brain

 As the brain develops, newly formed neurons must travel through tightly packed tissue to reach their final destinations in the cerebral cortex, where they become part of the brain's communication network. This journey forces the cells through narrow gaps between fibers and neighboring cells.

A new study published in Nature has revealed an unexpected consequence of that process. Researchers from Kyoto University's Institute for Integrated Cell-Material Sciences (WPI-iCeMS) and collaborating institutions found that migrating neurons routinely experience significant DNA damage. Specifically, the cells develop double-strand breaks, a severe form of DNA damage in which both strands of the DNA double helix are cut.

Although double-strand breaks are typically associated with mutations, cell dysfunction, and even cell death, the researchers discovered that they are a normal part of brain cortex development. In healthy brains, the damage is rapidly repaired before it can cause lasting problems.

"The developing brain appears to have evolved to tolerate and repair the neuronal damage efficiently," says Professor Mineko Kengaku, of WPI-iCeMS, who led the study. "But understanding the limits of that tolerance -- and what happens when repair is incomplete -- brings us closer to understanding a range of neurological conditions."

DNA Damage During Neuronal Migration

To investigate how this damage occurs, the researchers recreated the physical challenges faced by developing neurons. They guided neurons through tiny microchannels designed to mimic the confined spaces found in growing brain tissue.

Using fluorescent markers, the team observed double-strand DNA breaks appearing as neurons moved through the channels. Once the cells emerged from the other side, the damage gradually disappeared. Most of the breaks were repaired within 24 hours, and the neurons continued functioning normally.

The researchers identified the source of the damage as Topoisomerase IIβ, an enzyme that normally helps cells manage stress within DNA. Under ordinary conditions, the enzyme temporarily cuts DNA strands to relieve twisting and tension generated by routine cellular activity before reconnecting them.

The process can be compared to cutting a tangled cable to remove twists and then reconnecting it. However, when neurons are subjected to mechanical stress while squeezing through tight spaces, the enzyme can become trapped midway through the process, leaving sections of DNA broken. The cell then relies on a repair mechanism called non-homologous end joining to reconnect the damaged DNA ends.

Why Neurons Recover While Other Cells Do Not

The team found that neuronal DNA damage differs from the damage seen in certain cancer cells moving through the same microchannels. In cancer cells, DNA damage tends to occur more randomly and can disrupt normal cellular activity or trigger cell death.

In contrast, the DNA breaks in neurons were concentrated mainly in regions of the genome that are not actively involved in critical gene functions. Because essential genes are largely spared, the cells are able to maintain normal function despite the temporary damage.

When DNA Repair Falls Short

To explore the consequences of failed repair, the researchers engineered mice whose newly formed cerebellar neurons lacked Ligase 4, an enzyme required for repairing DNA breaks.

The mice developed normally and showed no obvious early abnormalities. However, as they reached adulthood, they began to experience mild but gradually worsening balance problems. These symptoms resemble those seen in certain human disorders linked to genome instability that affect the cerebellum.

Clues to Brain Diversity and Disease

The findings suggest that DNA breakage and repair may play a larger role in brain biology than previously recognized. Researchers now want to understand whether these early DNA changes contribute to differences between individual neurons and whether they influence neurodevelopmental or neurodegenerative diseases later in life.

"It shifts how we think about the neuronal genome," says Professor Kengaku. "All neurons originate from the same DNA, but DNA damage and repair can introduce small genetic differences between individual neurons through a small mechanical journey. Some of that history may be written into the genome itself."

Source: ScienceDaily