Stunning 150-million-year-old stegosaur skull rewrites dinosaur evolution

 Paleontologists from the Fundación Conjunto Paleontológico de Teruel-Dinópolis have published new findings in the scientific journal Vertebrate Zoology describing an extraordinary stegosaur skull discovered in Riodeva (Teruel, Spain). The fossil, which comes from a plated dinosaur that lived about 150 million years ago, is also helping researchers propose a new explanation for how stegosaurs evolved and spread across the world.

Stegosaurs were plant-eating dinosaurs that walked on four legs and are best known for the rows of plates and spikes running from their necks to their tails. The newly studied fossil was uncovered during excavations led by Fundación Dinópolis at the "Están de Colón" site within the Villar del Arzobispo Formation, which dates back to the Late Jurassic period.

Researchers identified the specimen as Dacentrurus armatus, one of Europe's most iconic stegosaurs. The fossil is considered the best-preserved stegosaur skull ever discovered in Europe, a remarkable achievement because dinosaur skulls are extremely delicate and rarely survive intact over millions of years.

Sergio Sánchez Fenollosa, researcher at Fundación Dinópolis and co-author of the study, said: "The detailed study of this exceptional fossil has allowed us to reveal previously unknown aspects of the anatomy of Dacentrurus armatus, the quintessential European stegosaur, which in 2025 marks 150 years since its first description. Dinosaurian skulls are rarely preserved due to the extreme fragility of their bones. This discovery is key to understanding how stegosaurian skulls evolved.

"Furthermore, alongside the anatomical study, we have also proposed a new hypothesis that redefines the evolutionary relationships of stegosaurs worldwide. As a result of this work, we have formalized the definition of a new group called Neostegosauria."

New Dinosaur Evolution Hypothesis

The researchers say Neostegosauria includes medium and large stegosaur species that lived across several continents during different periods of the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous. According to the study, members of this group inhabited areas that are now Africa and Europe during the Middle and Late Jurassic, North America during the Late Jurassic, and Asia during the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous.

The team believes this new classification could reshape how scientists understand the evolutionary history and global distribution of plated dinosaurs.

Fossil Site Still Producing Important Discoveries

Alberto Cobos, managing director of Fundación Dinópolis and co-author of the research, emphasized the broader importance of the discovery: "This dual achievement-both the study of an exceptional fossil and the proposal of a new evolutionary hypothesis-positions this research as a global reference in stegosaurian studies.

"This fossil site from Riodeva continues to be a subject of research and still holds numerous relevant fossils, including more postcranial elements from the same adult specimen and, notably, juvenile individuals, a particularly rare combination in this type of dinosaurs. These discoveries continue to exponentially increase the paleontological heritage of the province of Teruel, making it one of the iconic regions for understanding the evolution of life on Earth."

Scientists say the Riodeva fossil site continues to yield valuable material, including additional bones from the same adult dinosaur and rare juvenile remains. Discoveries like these are helping establish Teruel as one of the world's most important locations for studying prehistoric life and dinosaur evolution.

Study Published in Vertebrate Zoology

The research appears in Vertebrate Zoology under the title "New insights into the phylogeny and skull evolution of stegosaurian dinosaurs: An extraordinary cranium from the European Late Jurassic (Dinosauria: Stegosauria)." The paper was authored by paleontologists Sergio Sánchez Fenollosa and Alberto Cobos of Fundación Dinópolis.

The project was supported by Fundación Dinópolis, which is affiliated with the Dept. of Medio Ambiente y Turismo of the Gobierno de Aragón. It also forms part of the activities of Research Group E04-23R FOCONTUR, funded by the Gobierno de Aragón through the Dept. of Empleo, Ciencia y Universidades.

Additional support came from the Unidad de Paleontología de Teruel, funded by the Gobierno de España through the Ministry of Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades. Excavation work at the site also received backing through the project Los yacimientos paleontológicos de la provincia de Teruel como factor de desarrollo territorial (IV), funded jointly by the Gobierno de España and the Gobierno de Aragón through the Teruel Investment Fund via the Dept. of Presidencia, Economía y Justicia.

Source: ScienceDaily

Scientists reverse Alzheimer’s in mice with breakthrough nanotechnology

 An international team of researchers has reported a striking Alzheimer's breakthrough in mice using specially engineered nanoparticles that do much more than deliver medicine. These microscopic particles act as drugs themselves, helping the brain restore its own natural cleaning system and dramatically reducing toxic protein buildup linked to Alzheimer's disease.

The work was led by scientists from the Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC) and West China Hospital Sichuan University (WCHSU), together with collaborators in the United Kingdom. Their findings were published in Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy.

Instead of focusing directly on damaged neurons, the scientists targeted the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a protective network of cells and blood vessels that controls what enters and leaves the brain. In Alzheimer's disease, this system gradually breaks down, allowing harmful proteins to accumulate and damaging brain function over time.

The researchers designed bioactive nanoparticles called "supramolecular drugs" to help restore this barrier and restart the brain's ability to remove waste.

Repairing the Brain's Cleanup System

The human brain uses enormous amounts of energy. In adults, it consumes around 20% of the body's total energy supply, and in children the figure can reach 60%. To meet those demands, the brain depends on an extremely dense network of blood vessels. Scientists estimate the brain contains roughly one billion capillaries, with nearly every neuron connected to its own blood supply.

Growing evidence suggests these blood vessels play a far larger role in dementia than previously thought. Many researchers now believe vascular damage is not simply a side effect of Alzheimer's disease but may actively drive its progression. Recent studies have also linked blood-brain barrier breakdown to early cognitive decline and increased buildup of toxic proteins.

Under healthy conditions, the blood-brain barrier helps clear waste products from the brain while blocking harmful substances such as toxins and pathogens. One of the most important waste proteins is amyloid-β (Aβ), the sticky material that forms plaques associated with Alzheimer's disease.

In Alzheimer's patients, the brain's waste disposal system begins to fail. As amyloid-β accumulates, neurons become damaged and memory problems worsen.

Alzheimer's Plaques Dropped Within Hours

To test the new therapy, researchers used genetically engineered mice that develop high levels of amyloid-β and progressive cognitive decline similar to Alzheimer's disease in humans.

The animals received only 3 doses of the nanoparticles. The effects appeared quickly.

"Only 1h after the injection we observed a reduction of 50-60% in Aβ amount inside the brain," explains Junyang Chen, first co-author of the study, researcher at the West China Hospital of Sichuan University and PhD student at the University College London (UCL).

The long-term results were even more dramatic. Scientists tracked the animals for months using behavioral and memory tests covering different stages of disease progression.

In one experiment, researchers treated a 12-month-old mouse (equivalent to a 60-year-old human) and evaluated it six months later. By that point, the animal was roughly comparable to a 90-year-old human. Despite its age, the mouse behaved similarly to a healthy animal with no signs of Alzheimer's-related decline.

"The long-term effect comes from restoring the brain's vasculature. We think it works like a cascade: when toxic species such as amyloid-beta (Aβ) accumulate, disease progresses. But once the vasculature is able to function again, it starts clearing Aβ and other harmful molecules, allowing the whole system to recover its balance. What's remarkable is that our nanoparticles act as a drug and seem to activate a feedback mechanism that brings this clearance pathway back to normal levels," said Giuseppe Battaglia, ICREA Research Professor at IBEC, Principal Investigator of the Molecular Bionics Group and leader of the study.

How the Nanoparticles Work

A major focus of the study was a protein called LRP1, which acts like a molecular transport system at the blood-brain barrier. Normally, LRP1 recognizes amyloid-β, binds to it, and moves it out of the brain and into the bloodstream for disposal.

But the process is delicate. If LRP1 binds amyloid-β too strongly, the transport machinery becomes overloaded and breaks down. If the interaction is too weak, waste removal does not occur efficiently enough. Either way, amyloid-β starts piling up in the brain.

The supramolecular nanoparticles were engineered to mimic the natural molecules that interact with LRP1. By doing this, the particles appear to "reset" the transport system, allowing amyloid-β to move out of the brain again.

Source: ScienceDaily

Scientists reveal how seven days of fasting transforms the human body

 Going without food for several days does far more than force the body to burn fat. Research published in Nature Metabolism revealed that extended fasting sets off widespread biological changes throughout the body, including shifts linked to the brain, metabolism, and immune system.

Scientists found that many of the most significant effects did not appear right away. Instead, the body seemed to enter a very different biological state after about three days without food.

The findings offer one of the clearest pictures yet of what prolonged fasting does inside the human body at a molecular level. Researchers say the work could eventually help scientists develop treatments that mimic some of fasting's effects without requiring people to stop eating for days.

What Happens to the Body During Prolonged Fasting?

Humans evolved to survive periods of food scarcity. When food is unavailable, the body switches from using glucose from meals to relying on stored fat for energy.

Fasting has been practiced for thousands of years for religious, cultural, and medical reasons. It has also attracted growing attention in recent years because of studies linking fasting and intermittent fasting to weight loss, improved metabolic health, and cellular repair processes.

Still, scientists have had only a limited understanding of exactly how the body responds during longer fasts.

To investigate, researchers from Queen Mary University of London's Precision Healthcare University Research Institute (PHURI) and the Norwegian School of Sports Sciences monitored 12 healthy volunteers during a seven day water-only fast. Blood samples were collected daily before, during, and after fasting.

Using advanced proteomics technology, the team tracked roughly 3,000 proteins circulating in the bloodstream. These proteins can provide clues about what is happening across organs and tissues throughout the body.

The Biggest Changes Started After Day Three

As expected, the body quickly shifted from burning glucose to burning fat within the first two to three days of fasting.

Participants lost an average of 5.7 kilograms (about 12.5 pounds), including both fat and lean tissue. After participants resumed eating for three days, most of the lean tissue loss returned while much of the fat loss remained.

But researchers discovered something more surprising.

Large scale changes in protein activity throughout the body did not begin immediately. Instead, major molecular changes became much more noticeable after around three days without calories.

More than one third of the proteins measured changed significantly during fasting. Some of the strongest shifts involved proteins linked to the extracellular matrix, which helps provide structural support for tissues and organs, including neurons in the brain.

The protein changes were remarkably consistent among volunteers, suggesting the body may follow a highly coordinated response to prolonged fasting.

"For the first time, we're able to see what's happening on a molecular level across the body when we fast," said Claudia Langenberg, Director of Queen Mary's Precision Health University Research Institute (PHURI).

"Fasting, when done safely, is an effective weight loss intervention. Popular diets that incorporate fasting, such as intermittent fasting, claim to have health benefits beyond weight loss. Our results provide evidence for the health benefits of fasting beyond weight loss, but these were only visible after three days of total caloric restriction -- later than we previously thought."

Potential Benefits Beyond Weight Loss

Researchers used genetic data from large human studies to examine how the protein changes observed during fasting might influence long term health.

The results suggested possible links to improvements in several biological pathways associated with disease risk and inflammation. Scientists also identified changes connected to proteins involved in brain support structures.

The findings have fueled interest in whether fasting could someday help researchers develop therapies for conditions involving metabolism, aging, inflammation, or neurological health.

Interest in fasting research has continued growing since the 2024 study was published. More recent reviews have linked intermittent fasting to improved insulin sensitivity, healthier lipid levels, and possible benefits for brain function and cardiovascular health.

Other recent studies on prolonged fasting have also found that the body enters a deep ketogenic state during multi day fasts, dramatically changing how cells use fuel.

Source: ScienceDaily

Scientists uncover surprising health benefits of watermelon

 Watermelon has long been a summer favorite, but research suggests this refreshing fruit may offer benefits far beyond hydration. Studies published in Nutrients found that people who regularly eat watermelon tend to have healthier overall diets and may also support better heart and blood vessel function.

Researchers say watermelon provides an impressive mix of nutrients, antioxidants, and naturally occurring compounds linked to cardiovascular and metabolic health. Its high water content and low calorie count also make it an easy way to add more fruit to your diet.

Watermelon Linked to Better Diet Quality

One study examined data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) to compare the diets of watermelon eaters and non-consumers across the United States. The analysis found that both children and adults who consumed watermelon generally had higher-quality diets overall.

According to the findings, watermelon consumers took in more dietary fiber, magnesium, potassium, vitamin C, vitamin A, lycopene, and other carotenoids. At the same time, they consumed lower amounts of added sugars and saturated fat. The study was originally published in Nutrients in 2022.

That combination is notable because many Americans still struggle to meet recommended fruit intake goals. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) recommend between 1.5 and 2.5 cups of fruit daily, yet most adults and children consume only about half that amount.

Compounds in Watermelon May Support Heart Health

A separate clinical trial from Louisiana State University explored whether watermelon juice could help protect blood vessel function during periods of elevated blood sugar. The randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study involved 18 healthy young adults who consumed watermelon juice daily for two weeks.

Researchers focused on two naturally occurring watermelon compounds, L-citrulline and L-arginine, which are involved in nitric oxide production. Nitric oxide helps blood vessels relax and expand, an important part of healthy circulation and cardiovascular function.

The study found evidence that watermelon juice supplementation helped maintain vascular function during hyperglycemia and influenced heart rate variability.

"We acknowledge that while the sample size was small (18 healthy young men and women) and more research is needed, this study adds to the current body of evidence supporting regular intake of watermelon for cardio-metabolic health. In addition to L-citrulline and L-arginine, watermelon is a rich source of antioxidants, vitamin C and lycopene -- all of which can help reduce oxidative stress and play a role in heart disease prevention," said Dr. Jack Losso, Ph.D., professor at Louisiana State University's School of Nutrition and Food Sciences.

Follow Up Research Continues to Explore Benefits

Since those studies were published, additional reviews and meta-analyses have continued investigating watermelon's role in vascular and metabolic health. Researchers have reported that watermelon consumption and L-citrulline supplementation may improve measures tied to blood vessel flexibility and circulation, including pulse wave velocity and endothelial function.

Scientists are especially interested in watermelon because it is one of the richest natural food sources of L-citrulline. Recent reviews have highlighted the fruit's potential role in supporting nitric oxide production, healthy blood flow, and cardiovascular function, although experts stress that larger long-term studies are still needed.

Watermelon is also packed with lycopene, a powerful antioxidant associated with reduced oxidative stress and potential heart health benefits. Red watermelon varieties tend to contain especially high levels of lycopene.

A Hydrating, Low Calorie Fruit

Beyond the research buzz, watermelon remains a nutrient-dense fruit that is easy to enjoy year-round. A 2-cup serving contains only 80 calories and provides 25% of the daily value for vitamin C along with 8% of the daily value for vitamin B6. The fruit is also made up of about 92% water, making it a hydrating option during hot weather or after exercise.

Whether served at a summer barbecue, blended into smoothies, or added to salads, watermelon offers a simple way to increase fruit intake while adding vitamins, antioxidants, and hydration to your diet.

Source: ScienceDaily

Ancient lost ocean may have built Central Asia’s dinosaur-era mountains

 A new study from Adelaide University suggests that the ancient Tethys Ocean played a major role in shaping Central Asia's landscape during the Cretaceous period, long before the rise of the Himalayas.

The research team reached this conclusion through a large-scale data analysis that combined hundreds of thermal history models collected from more than 30 years of geological studies across Central Asia.

Scientists have often linked the region's landscape to a combination of tectonic activity, climate changes, and processes deep within Earth's mantle over the past 250 million years. However, the new findings point to a different dominant force.

"We found that climate change and mantle processes had only little influence on the Central Asian landscape, which persisted in an arid climate for much of the last 250 million years," said Dr. Sam Boone, who was a post-doctoral researcher at Adelaide University when the research was conducted.

"Instead, the dynamics of the distant Tethys Ocean can directly be correlated with short-lived periods of mountain building in Central Asia."

How a Lost Ocean Influenced Mountain Building

The Tethys Ocean once stretched across a vast area of the planet before gradually disappearing during the Meso-Cenozoic period, which covers the last 250 million years. Today, the Mediterranean Sea is considered the final remnant of that ancient ocean.

"The present-day relief of Central Asia was largely built by the India-Eurasia collision and ongoing convergence," said co-author Associate Professor Stijn Glorie, from Adelaide University's School of Physics, Chemistry and Earth Sciences.

"However, during the Cretaceous periods, dinosaurs would have seen a mountainous landscape as well, similar to the present-day Basin-and-Range Province in the western USA.

"It is thought that the extension in the Tethys, due to roll-back of subducting slabs of ocean crust, reactivated old suture zones into a series of roughly parallel ridges in Central Asia, up to thousands of kilometers away from the Himalaya collision zone."

According to the researchers, geological activity connected to the ancient ocean may have triggered mountain formation far from the actual plate boundaries.

Thermal History Models Reveal Earth's Past

The study relied on thermal history models, which help scientists trace how rocks cooled as they moved closer to Earth's surface during periods of mountain uplift and erosion.

"These models were constructed using thermochronology methods and reveal how rocks cooled down when they are brought towards the surface during mountain uplift and subsequent erosion," Associate Professor Glorie said.

"We analyzed a compilation of thermal history models in function of plate-tectonic models for the Tethys Ocean evolution, as well as deep-time precipitation and mantle-convection models."

By combining these datasets, the team was able to reconstruct previously hidden chapters of Earth's geological history.

Applying the Research Beyond Central Asia

Associate Professor Glorie said the same research method could help scientists investigate other geological mysteries around the world. The study was published in Nature Communications Earth and Environment.

"There are many parts on the planet where the drivers and timing for mountain building and/or rifting are poorly understood. For example, closer to home, the break-up history of Australia from Antarctica is somewhat enigmatic," he said.

"Australia drifted away about 80 million years ago, but there is no obvious imprint of this in the thermal history record of either the Antarctic or Australian plate margins. Instead, they record much older cooling histories.

"We are applying the same approach as used in Central Asia to advance understanding of Australia-Antarctica break-up."

Source: ScienceDaily

Scientists reveal the surprising truth about coffee and blood pressure

 People now consume nearly two kilograms of coffee per person each year on average, often with strong opinions about brewing methods, beans, and blends. Genetics can also play a role in how much coffee people enjoy, influencing both caffeine metabolism and the brain's reward system.

Coffee can temporarily raise blood pressure, particularly in people who rarely drink it or already have hypertension. But that does not automatically mean coffee needs to disappear from your routine if you are worried about heart health. For most people, moderation matters more than complete avoidance.

So what exactly does coffee do to blood pressure, and how much is considered safe?

What Is High Blood Pressure?

Blood pressure measures the force of blood pushing against artery walls as the heart pumps. Doctors track it using two numbers:

• systolic blood pressure, the higher number, measures pressure when the heart contracts and pumps blood through the body
• diastolic blood pressure, the lower number, measures pressure when the heart relaxes between beats.

A healthy blood pressure reading is below 120 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) systolic and below 80 mm Hg diastolic.

Readings that consistently reach 140/90 or higher are classified as high blood pressure, also known as hypertension.

Hypertension is often called a silent condition because it usually causes no symptoms. Left untreated or poorly managed, it can increase the risk of heart attacks and strokes and worsen existing heart and kidney disease.

Around 31% of adults have hypertension, and about half do not realize they have it. Among people taking medication for high blood pressure, roughly 47% still do not have it under control.

How Caffeine Raises Blood Pressure

Caffeine acts as a muscle stimulant and can increase heart rate in some people. In certain cases, this may contribute to an irregular heartbeat called arrhythmia.

It also prompts the adrenal glands to release adrenaline. That response causes the heart to beat faster and blood vessels to narrow, which can push blood pressure higher.

Caffeine levels in the bloodstream usually peak between 30 minutes and two hours after drinking coffee. Its half-life is 3-6 hours, meaning the amount in the blood falls by roughly half during that period.

Several factors influence how quickly the body processes caffeine. Age matters because children have smaller, less developed livers that metabolize caffeine more slowly. Genetics also play a role, since some people naturally break down caffeine faster than others. Regular coffee drinkers also tend to clear caffeine from the body more efficiently.

Research reviews show caffeine from coffee, cola, energy drinks, and chocolate can raise systolic blood pressure by 3-15 and diastolic blood pressure by 4-13 after consumption.

The effect may be more concerning for people who already have hypertension or existing heart or liver disease. Anyone with these conditions should discuss caffeine intake with their doctor.

Coffee Contains More Than Caffeine

Coffee is made up of hundreds of phytochemicals, compounds that influence flavor, aroma, and potentially health.

Some of these compounds may directly affect blood pressure. Melanoidins, for example, help regulate fluid balance and enzymes involved in blood pressure control.

Another compound called quinic acid has been linked to lower systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Researchers believe it may help blood vessels function more effectively, making it easier for them to handle changes in pressure.

Does Coffee Increase the Risk of Hypertension?

Researchers have closely examined whether coffee actually causes long-term high blood pressure.

One review combined data from 13 studies involving about 315,000 people. During the follow-up period, 64,650 participants developed hypertension. Overall, researchers found no clear link between coffee drinking and a greater risk of developing high blood pressure.

Source: ScienceDaily

Quantum ghost imaging works using only sunlight in stunning new experiment

 Correlated and entangled photon pairs are essential tools in quantum optics. Scientists usually create these photon pairs through a process called spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC), in which a powerful, highly stable laser shines into a nonlinear crystal. Because SPDC depends so heavily on coherent laser light, researchers have long considered the technique impractical outside carefully controlled laboratory environments.

More recently, studies have shown that perfectly coherent light is not actually required for SPDC to work. Even partially coherent light sources can produce correlated photon pairs, while also transferring some of their own coherence properties to the generated photons. That discovery led researchers to ask an intriguing question: could sunlight itself be used to generate correlated photon pairs?

Using Sunlight for Quantum Optics

Turning sunlight into a usable SPDC source comes with major obstacles. Sunlight reaching Earth constantly fluctuates in brightness, direction, and position, making it difficult to maintain the precise alignment needed for SPDC experiments and photon detection.

At the same time, sunlight offers a major advantage. Unlike lasers, it does not require electrical power or complex laboratory equipment. A sunlight-based system could potentially operate in remote locations or even in space where traditional laser systems may be impractical.

A research team led by Wuhong Zhang and Lixiang Chen at Xiamen University has now demonstrated a working solution. Writing in Advanced Photonics, the scientists described an experimental setup that uses sunlight as the only pump source for SPDC.

Their system includes an automatic sun-tracking device similar to an equatorial telescope mount. The tracker continuously follows the Sun throughout the day and directs sunlight into a 20 m plastic multimode optical fiber. The fiber transports the light into a dark indoor laboratory, where it pumps a periodically poled potassium titanyl phosphate (PPKTP) nonlinear crystal.

Sunlight Successfully Produces Correlated Photon Pairs

Despite the instability of natural sunlight, the setup successfully generated photon pairs with strong position correlations. To test the system, the researchers used the photon pairs for ghost imaging, a quantum imaging technique in which images are reconstructed using correlated photons instead of direct spatial detection.

The sunlight-driven system achieved a ghost-imaging visibility of 90.7%, close to the 95.5 percent visibility produced by a standard 405 nm laser operating at the same pump power.

Beyond simple double-slit imaging, the researchers also reconstructed a more detailed two-dimensional image described as a "ghost face." The result demonstrated that the sunlight-powered system could handle more complex spatial patterns.

According to the researchers, sunlight's broad spectrum helps support quasi-phase matching inside the nonlinear crystal, allowing the production of large numbers of position-correlated photon pairs. By collecting data over extended periods, the team improved both the signal-to-noise and contrast-to-noise ratios, showing that the system could maintain stable performance despite natural fluctuations in sunlight.

A Fully Passive Quantum Imaging System

The experiment marks the first successful demonstration of sunlight-pumped SPDC combined with ghost imaging. By removing the need for lasers and external electrical power, the system creates a fully passive source of correlated photon pairs.

The researchers believe the technology could prove especially useful for future quantum imaging and quantum information systems used in remote environments or space-based applications.

They also noted that advances in sunlight collection, crystal engineering, and image reconstruction methods, including compressed sensing and machine learning, could further improve image quality and imaging speed while helping move the technology closer to practical real-world use.

Source: ScienceDAily